Historically, as we have discussed before, Jainism’s roots can be traced to the Shramanic tradition.  Shramans were opposed to the Brahmin or Vedic traditions.  They did not agree to the classification of people based on their birth or ethnic and racial background.  They believed all human beings were equal and all capable of achieving the highest mental status and material well being.  They also viewed men and woman as equal.  The Shramanic tradition also denied the existence of a creator god and refused any kind of offerings in the name of god or to please the gods.  They also opposed animal sacrifice (a cruel practice) to please the gods.  It is unclear weather they were vegetarians or if they ate meat.  According to Jain legend, the first known mention of opposition to any animal killing for human consumption was by Naminatha (the 22nd Thirathnkar).   While it is not a proven fact that Naminatha really existed, he is mentioned in the Mahabratha as Krishna’s cousin and he is commonly accepted as an historical figure.  While there is no evidence to support the existence of the first 21 Thirthankars, the 23rd and 24th Thirthankars have been well documented.

About 2900 years ago (900 BC), a prince named Parswa Kumar was born to the ruler of Kasi (modern Varanasi or Beneras).  The prince became a Shraman at the age of 30 and after attaining enlightenment (Kevalnan).  He preached until he was 100 years of age.  During the last days of his life he practiced Sanlekhana (fasting until death) and passed away at Sametshikhar.  According to Jain legend 19 other Thirthankars also had nirvana at Sametshikhar.  As a result, Sametshikhar is the holiest place for Jains.  This summit is officially known as Parasnath Hills.  It is highest point (about 4000 feet above sea level) of the Chotanagpur Range (an eastern extension of the Vindhya Mountains).  There is also a railroad station named Parasnath Hills on the Calcutta-Delhi railway line. 

About 250 years after Parasnath’s nirvana (death), another prince was born in the state of Magadh (present day Bihar), his name was Vardhman.  He became a Shraman at the age of 32 and for next 40 years would profess, preach and expand upon Parasnath’s teachings.  We know Vardhman today as Mahavir, and he is commonly accepted as the founder of Jainism.  The four principles (Chatur Dharam) of Parswa and a fifth (added by Mahavir) are known as Panchvrat and is the philosophical and moral basis of Jainism.  Parswa and Mahavir established what is known as Chaturvidh Sangh.  (“Chatur” means four and “Sangh” is group).  This classification of people, divided people into four groups; the Sangh are Sadhus (male monks), the Sadhvis (female monks), the Shravak (male citizens or laymen) and the Shravika (female citizens or laywomen).  There were no other types of class or economic divisions and each had to follow the Panchvrat.  As this was not completely practical, Sadhus and Sadhvis adhered more strictly to what they called the Mahavrata.  For citizens the Panchvrat was less strict and were called the Anuvrat.

The first four vratas (principles) were initiated by Parasnath and the fifth was derived from the first four by Mahavir who separated distinguished it as a separate vrata.  The five vratas are:

1.Ahimsa

        We have no right to hurt any living thing.  This refers not only to killing but also to causing pain in any form.         

        Thus, eating any kind of flesh is prohibited.  Any kind of work that involves destroying even insects is not

        permitted, hence Jains cannot be farmers, herders or fishermen.  Since cooking and eating even vegetables

        involves hurting plant life, even this is to be done as less as possible.  For sadhus and sadhvis cooking is    

        entirely prohibited.  They have to beg for food and eat only that which is required to sustain life. (This means

        no parties, no drinks, and no evening or late night snacks.)  In fact they have to eat all three meals

        (breakfast, lunch and dinner) between sunrise and sunset.  In addition, they are to do as much upavas,

        akasnu etc. as possible.  In order to consume a minimum of food, Dighamber Jain monks only eat

        once a day all their life.  Buddhism also promotes Ahimsa but they emphasize a vegetarian diet and the

        non-injury of animals.  They did not go into as many details like Jains.  They call it the middle way.  It is

        said that many Jains had converted to Buddhism since they found it very difficult to follow Jainism.

2.Satya

        This means truth.  One is supposed to speak only the truth and to speak only with respect and kindness. 

        No bad words, no gossip, no rumors, no shouting, not anger, no back biting, no writing of false documents,

        no breach of trust.  Monks must speak as little as possible and should not get involved in politics or in social

        matters so as not to get involved in false propaganda.

3.Asteya

        Asteya means not steeling and not taking anything that is not yours without asking the owners permission. 

        Receiving stolen properties, cheating in business, evading laws, adulteration and excessive profiteering are

        all considered steeling and are prohibited.

4.Aparigraha

        Parigraha means possession.  Aparigraha means non-possession.  One is not supposed to accumulate

        materials and articles more then ones basic necessity.  Accumulation of wealth and   property has to be of a

        bare minimum, any excess should be donated.  Sadhus and sadhvis are prohibited against having any

        material wealth.  They are allowed only a few pairs of simple clothes, a couple of bowls to beg for food, a pot

        for drinking water and one woolen piece of cloth  (Katasanu) to sit on and a woolen fabric brush  (Charavado)

        for cleaning.  In fact, Dighamber sadhus (male monks only) stay naked and beg for food, which they eat out

        of the palm of their hands.

5.Brahmacharya

        This vrata is about chastity.  For the lay person it means no premarital or extramarital sex.  It also means no

        drugs, alcohol, and gambling or any other unnatural gratification.  For the monks it also means celibacy.

         Each vrata has to be personally observed in three ways:

1.Manasha – by one’s mind and thinking

2.Vacha – by one’s speech

3.Karmana – by one’s actions

         Each vrata was also to be upheld in three ways:

1.Karyu – by oneself

2.Karavu – by getting others to do so

3.Anumodue – by supporting other

Observance of these vratas lead Jains into business, professional fields, finance and government.  Some of those that got very rich have been great donors and some have been great government officers.  Another result of adherence to these vratas meant that Jains were concentrated in towns and cities; very few Jains live in villages.  As merchants, Jains lived along the old trade routes.  Hence Gujarat, Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh had the largest concentration of Jains for quite some time.  After the 17th century when business went to Mumbai, many Jains from these three states moved to Mumbai (in Maharashtra).  Nonetheless, many still maintained their old residences in their ancestral towns.  Mumbai, Ahmedabad, Surat, Delhi, Jaipur and Indor have the largest (in that order) concentration of Jains.  Probably about half of all Jains live in these cities.  Around 300 years after Mahavir’s nirvana, Jains split in two groups: Swetamber Jains, meaning white clad, and Dighamber Jains, meaning sky clad (naked).  Somewhere around this same time temple building and idol worshiping began.  It was either the Hindus, Jains or Buddhists that began this tradition and the others followed suit. 

            Prior to the passing of Mahavir and Buddha, there are no records of temples or idol worship in either Jainism or Buddhism. The Magadh Empire was born uniting almost the entire subcontinent under one rule.  The South was firmly united and assimilated with the North.  Prior to that, most of the old Brahmin (Hindu) literature (Ramayana, Mahabaratha) was set in the Eastern part of India (the Ganga delta between Delhi and Calcutta) and had no mention of the South and very little of the West.  Thus it would seem that this literature originated from before Magadh’s time (at least 2300 years ago).  Only the Ramayana mentions the south.  Jain stories are similar in this way.  All twenty-four Thirthankars birthplaces and life stories take place in the East.  Only two Thirthankars attained nirvana outside of the East; the first on Mt. Kailash and the 22nd in Gujarat.  This also leads us to believe that these Jain myths originated between 3200 and 2300 years ago in the Eastern part of the subcontinent.  After 330 BC, India’s history was recorded in great detail.

            Historically, Alexander the Great’s invasion (approx. 326 BC) brought India in direct contact with West. I think the making of idols maybe a direct result of Greek influence.  Greeks were well known for building temples and statues and probably brought this idea to India.  Alexander the Great left his eastern empire to Seleucus Nikander.  Within a few years, Chandragupta Maurya (who founded the Maurya Empire) invaded and defeated Seleucus, and thus Northwest India and Afghanistan were surrendered by the Greeks and become part of the Maurya Empire.  Seleucus’s daughter was later married to Chandragupta and a Greek ambassador was appointed to the court of Maurya. Much of the history of India from that time has come from the writings of this Ambassador whose name was Megasthenes.  It has also been recorded that some Jain monks had accompanied the Greeks on their way back to Persia.  It is likely that this contact between Greeks and Jains led the Jains to begin to make idols of Thirthankars during Chandragupta’s rule.  There were two major centers of idol production.  Mathura (located between Delhi and Agra) which was famous for its purely Indian art, and Gandhar (present day Kandhar in Afghanistan) which was famous for Gandhara art (a combination of Indian and Greek art.)  Most of the oldest statues of Jainism, Buddhism and Hinduism were all produced at these two places.

            Chandragupta extended his empire westward to Gujarat and further south as well seemingly to control trade routes and ports on the Arabian Sea. In his later years, Chandragupta, under the influence of Acharya Bhadrabahu, head of Jain Sangh, became a Jain and abdicated the throne to his son, Bindusar.  Chandragupta become a Jain monk and went to the South with the Acharya and a large number of his followers. Both the Acharya and the former Emperor passed away a few years later at Shravanbelgola.  (We visited this place during our trip to the South and saw the big statue of Bahubali or Gomateswara.) 

            During the time Acharya Bhadrabhu was in the South, Acharya Sthulibhadra took his place in the North.  He decided that as a result of the oral tradition many interpretations of Mahavir’s teaching had taken place and thus also that the many different books written when recorded history began reflected these various interpretations.  Acharya Sthulibhadra called a convention of Jain monks at Patliputra where they edited all sacred writings.  The rules of nudity were relaxed at this time and monks were allowed to wear a few items of clothing.  (It is widely believed that Mahavir, during the later part of his life, had remained naked as a result of giving away his sole article of clothing.  Following suit, all Jain monks as a tradition remained naked.  Jains who had earlier gone to south did not agree with these changes and did not accept the edited version of canonical literature and this marked the beginning of the division of Jainism into two sects.  The two sects are known as Digambara (Southern group) and Swetambara (Northern group).  Digambaras also started the tradition of a religious leader called Bhattaraka (a person in between monk s and layman) who administers their temples and mathas (abbeys).  As time passed, the division became increasingly greater resulting in antagonism and hostility between the two groups.  In the 19th and 20th century they even fought court battles to establish control over some sacred pilgrimage places.  While both groups believe in Mahavir’s message and the five vratas, there are a few key differences. 

                   1.  Clothing:

 

1. • Digambara monks (males only) retain the tradition of being naked and beg for food which they eat with their own hands only once a day. “Dig” means sky or surroundings and “ambara” means clothes, thus Digambara means sky clad or naked.
   

2. • Swetambara monks wear white clothes and beg for food eating in bowls between sunrise and sunset hours only.  “Swet” means white, thus Swetambara means white clad.
   

                   2.  Idols:

 

1. • Digambara idols are simple and in a meditative repose. 
   

2. • Swetambara idols are decorated with jewels and the rites and rituals are much elaborate.
   

                   3.  Female Roles:

 

1. • The Digambara believe that women are physically week and can not follow the requirements as vigorously as men and thus cannot achieve Kevalnan and cannot go to Moksha and must as a result be reborn as man in next life.  Accordingly they do not believe that the 19th thirthankar was a woman.
   

2. • The Swetambara believe that men and women are equal.
   

3. • It is important to note that despite their differences, the position of women in society is better in both sects than in the Hindu and Brahmin traditions.  In the Hindu tradition women are treated far below men and there are no female priests or monks.
   

            This division which began around 300 BC and was completed by 100 BC is the only known division among Jains up until the 14th century.  Beginning in the 14th century there were many reform movements.  Some of the most important ones are as follows:

            In 1474, Lonkasaha, a rich and very well read Swetambara Jain merchant of Ahmedabad began to doubt that idol worship was truly part of Mahavir’s teachings. Some think that he was influenced by Islamic philosophy.  In the end he came to firmly believe that Mahavir never preached idol worship and he founded the Lonka sect, which rejected murtipuja (idol worship) and accepted the existence of monks and adherence to the five vratas.  In later years, Acharya Viraji organized and popularized the group.  They are now called Swetambara Sthanakvasi Jains.  They have prayer halls instead of Derahasars (temples).  In general their monks, both male and female, are more educated and disciplined then the older group which has come to be known as Swetambara Murtipujak Jains.

            Between 1448 -1515, Acharya Tarana Swami, a Digambara Jain monk, also started a movement in Gwalior similar to Lonkasha and his followers called Taranapantha.  They also rejected idol worship and rather in their temples they worship the sacred books (similar to Sikhs and Jews).

            Among Digambaras in 1626 some people revolted against the position of the Bhattaraka and started a separate group called Terapantha (different from the Swetambara Terapantha).  The original Digambara group is now called Bispantha.  They differ from each other in minor details of religious practice.

            In 1760, Acharya Bhikkanaji dissatisfied by some of the practices of the Sthanakavasi monks established a separate group called Terapantha.  They too do not believe in idol worship and are the most organized sect of Jains.  They have only one Acharya and they practice meditation and emphasize simplicity in religion, having almost no rituals.  Their 9th Acharya, Acharya Tulsi, is known as a great reformer.  He founded schools and hospitals and encouraged monks to study English and to travel to foreign lands to spread Jainism.

            In 1870 Dayanand Sarswati (a born Brahmin and great Hindu reformist) started a reformist sect called Arya Samaj. The Samaj is strongly against temples and idols and accept the Vedas as the only authority.  They do not accept Vishnu, Krishna, Shiva or anything that came about after the Vedas.  Arya Samaj also does not accept the caste system and the notion of Brahmin superiority.  Dayanand was an eminent scholar of Sanskrit and the Vedas and openly blamed Jainism for starting idol worshipping.

            One of the latest reform movement in the 20th century among Jains is by Kanajiswami a born Sthanakavasi Jain who is popularizing the sacred texts of Digambaras. He rejects the sectarian division and works towards a re-integration of one Jainism.  Another movement in the 20th century was by Shrimad Rajchandra, a jain philosopher who promoted simple living and Jain prayer as the basis for religion.

            There are several other smaller movements amongst Jains based on different interpretations of religious texts & Mahavir’s preaching.  The sects and reform movements detailed above are based upon differences in religious interpretations and may be more easily appreciated than some of the other divisions amongst Jains based upon the Hindu cast system.  Vedic Aryans had divided society in four groups, the lowest of which were the most suffered group called Sudras.  Later on each group got further divided into various sub-groups call castes or nati. The system of classification was more or less based upon craft or professions and become hereditary.

            Almost all religions believe in the concept of heaven and hell.  We do not know where this belief comes from, but in short, if you do good in life you will go to heaven and if you do bad things you will go to hell.  Some religions have several types of heavens and hells.  Jains believe in seven heavens and seven hells in addition to Moksha.   Another predominant belief in the subcontinent was the theory of karma and reincarnation.  Either the Jains or the Hindus started this belief, and the other adopted it.  The Buddhists would in turn also come to accept this belief.  According to the theory, simply speaking, all living things are made up of two things; the Atman (soul), which is immortal, and the Kaya (body), which is mortal.  When someone dies, it is the body that is dead while the soul leaves and moves onto another living body.  Individual souls are all similar and in this way continue on to another body based on their karma.  If one had bad karma they would go on to a lower kind of body (perhaps an insect or even a plant or to hell for a while before returning in another human body).  Humans were considered the highest body  and the only soul capable of good karma.  If a person dies with good Karma, they will get another human body (or go to heaven for a while before returning in another human body) .  This cycle will go on forever unless the particular soul does so much good karma that he goes to Moksha and is relieved from this cycle of rebirths. 

            The Brahmins justified their caste system with the extension of this theory in the following way; when the soul takes on a human body if their good karma is not good enough they are born as a Sudra and those whose karma was better were born into higher castes.  In this way an entire group of people were condemned to live a miserable existence for thousands of years.

            Oddly enough, in practice Jains also agree with this theory and condemn the Sudras.  They too have created their own caste system.  This was largely based on where their ancestors lived and in some cases when Vaishya Hindus adopted Jainism they still retained their own cast distinctions.  Thus there are Nima Jains (my family), Shrimali Jains (mom’s family), Oswal Jains (Usha Masi’s family – Voras), Porval Jains and many more.  All of these sub-groups are Swetambara Murtipujak Jains and go to the same temple, have the same monks, observe the same rituals and celebrate all festivals together.  However, traditionally, they will not intermarry.  The British during their rule indirectly supported and encouraged these divisions amongst Hindus and Jains.  It was easier for them to rule over a people that remained divided in so many groups.  It was only after independence, in the second half of 20th century, that things would change.

            Thus a Nima Jain from Kapadvanj will marry a Nima girl from Godhara or Vejalpur but will never consider marrying a Shrimali Jain girl living on the very next street.  Similarly, a Shrimali Jain of Kapadvanj will marry a Shrimali Jain of Khambat or Ahmedabad and so on and so forth.  Chotalal Patwa would have never even dreamed that his granddaughter (your mother) would marry a non Shrimali Jain much less another granddaughter (Nayana Masi) marrying a Vaishnav.  Bhogidada too would have had a heart attack to learn that Ramesh, his eldest great-grandson (responsible for carrying on his family tradition and good name), has married a Brahmin girl.